Roles and Functions Essay Example for Free

Roles and Functions Essay Management is important in any environment, but especially so in the healthcare field. As the health care system continues to evolve, sound management is critical to the survival of health care institutions (Johnson, 2005). The management team in a healthcare environment must always aim to improve the efficiency of the day to day activities and constantly plan for ways to improve the productivity and efficiency. Every manager’s main duty is to succeed in helping the organization achieve high performance while utilizing all of the organization’s human and material resources. On a daily basis health care managers must recognize performance problems and opportunities, make good decisions, and take appropriate action (Lombardi and Schermerhorn, 2007). There are four major functions in healthcare management, they are; planning, organizing, controlling the use of resources, and leading to accomplish performance goals. In my previous position, I was a manager over seven associates. Even though I technically was over that small group of people, I was still a manager in the store and often had people from other departments coming to me with issues. All of the major functions played a definite role in my day to day activities. Planning was usually the first step of the day. I would look at everything as a whole and make sure I was including everything that would be important for the day. Organizing almost went hand in hand with planning. Once I knew everything that needed to be done for the day, I could then organize and prioritize everything accordingly. Being organized is a very important; if you are unorganized there is a greater chance of tasks being forgotten or not being finished in a timely manner. Controlling the resources is something I dealt with every day. I was responsible for the ordering of the department; if I was out of a certain product and a customer came in for it, that was a problem. Also being responsible for my human resources was a daily problem, if my people weren’t doing what they were supposed to in a timely manner, then that would throw off my whole day. Lastly, leading to accomplish goals is something everyone strives for. Leading by example is also important, I felt like if I did not work alongside my people, I could not expect them to work. Showing my associates how to work together and address any issues immediately is important to leading my team and accomplish the ultimate goal. The management team in the healthcare environment has a very important role within their facility. There are ten managerial roles that fall within three categories. The three categories are: interpersonal roles, informational roles, and decisional roles. â€Å"A manager’s interpersonal roles involve interactions with people inside and outside the work unit. The information roles involve the giving, receiving, and analyzing of information. The decisional roles involve using information to make decisions, to solve problems, to address opportunities† (Lombardi Schermerhorn, 2007. P. 13). Interpersonal roles involve interactions with people inside and outside the unit. Informational roles of a health care manager involve giving, receiving, and analyzing information. Finally, the decisional roles of a health care manger involve using information for decision making, problem solving, and addressing opportunities (Lombardi Schermerhorn, 2007. P. 13). Of all these different roles, I believe the most important role is the interpersonal role. The interactions between the people inside and outside the unit are an important base. Making sure all of your associates work together and let you know about any issues is important, because if any of that gets out of sync, the rest will as well. In this class, I hope to gain more information on all the roles that are necessary for a good healthcare manager. With everything I hope to learn in this course, I can apply it to my future career as a healthcare administrator. References Johnson, S. W. (2005, April-June). Characteristics of effective health care managers. Health Care Manager, 24(2), 124-128. Lombardi, D. M., Schermerhorn, J. R. (2007). Health care management: Tools and techniques for managing in a health care environment. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons.

Maoism in China Essay Example for Free

Maoism in China Essay Generally, the Communist system in the Soviet Union and in China are practically identical politically, economically, with the reciprocal purges ect†¦ However, Mao Tse-Tung and Stalin did not see eye to eye on many things and Maoism is considered today by most people to be a more developed stage of Marxism-Leninism. This is because of the historical and cultural background of China and because of her geographical position and climate which affects society. Contrary to Russia, Communism developed in the countryside instead of in the cities. Thus it was a peasants revolution rather than, as predicted by Karl Marx, a workers revolution. The cities in China were at the beginning, anti-Communist. The Chinese absorption of Marxism was highly selective. China took from Marxism those aspects which best suited the Chinese situation rather than force the Chinese situation to fit an overachieving ideology. Thus Marxism was to be the servant of the Chinese Revolution. Mao Tse-Tung believed that adherence to pure Marxist theory would be suicidal and concluded that proletarian revolution based upon the urban areas was impossible in China since 80 percent of the people were peasants. Due to the warmer climate and more fertile land, peasantry was more popular in China. This pragmatic solution led to the Revolution starting in the rural areas. The most important difference between Stalin and Mao is the comprehension of the word proletariat. The Russians believed it meant, as Marx had, the industrial workers while the Chinese, by lack of sufficient workers, understood it as the peasantry. The Great Leap Forward where everyone was put to work was another Maoist characteristic. For 100 days each year, the peasants were not working in the fields so Mao set them up to work in the off-season harvest after 1957. Millions of men and women were put to work in winter, digging irrigation ditches and canals, preparing railroads and laying track. Then the backyard furnace was invented and 600 000 small steel establishments were set up.  The object was to overtake Britain in steel production. However, when the peasants left their land to work on the industrial projects, the lands suffered. So more changes were made. In some communes, men and women were separated to increase their productivity by cutting down socialising. On February 27th 1957, Mao was feeling very positive about all that he had done so he decided to loosen the straps on the Chinese people. He introduced the hundred flowers campaign where he encouraged arts, sciences and a flourishing socialist culture in our land. Different forms and styles in art should develop freely. It seemed he was encouraging free thought and criticism of the system. After only six weeks though, Maos open invitation brought a real storm of furious criticism from the intellectual community who believed the chairman was sincere. This infuriated Mao who was expecting positive feedback and in April 1957 a rectification campaign had begun to eliminate the triple evils: subjectivism, sectarianism, and bureaucratism. The party members and Mao believed to be above criticism so a purge of intellectuals began. The Cultural Revolution is perhaps the greatest difference between Stalinism and Maoism and was entirely set up by Mao Tse-Tung. He has been called insane many times for the crazy extent which the Cultural Revolution took and for the lasting and devastating effects it continues to have. Mao favoured the word, destruction when he promoted the Cultural Revolution; he preached that he had to destroy an old system of production, an old ideology and old customs first. He thought that once the ideology had been established, productivity would follow in a revolution. Although the bourgeoisie has been overthrown, it is still trying to use the old ideas, culture, customs and habits of the exploiting classes to corrupt the masses, capture their minds and endeavour to stage a comeback. The proletariat must do the exact opposite: it must deal merciless blows and meet head-on every challenge of the bourgeoisie in the ideological field and use the new ideas, culture, customs and habits of the proletariat to change the mental outlook of the whole of society. At present, our objective is to struggle against and overthrow those persons in authority who are taking the  capitalist road, to criticize and repudiate the reactionary bourgeois academic authorities and the ideology of the bourgeoisie and all other exploiting classes and to transform education, literature and art and all other parts of the superstructure not in correspondence with the socialist economic base, so as to facilitate the consolidation and development of the socialist system. Fifteen years after the success of the Revolution, Mao saw his new society as troubled, he had destroyed the old ruling class, but had established two new ones: the intelligentsia and the bureaucracy. Mao had turned against the intelligentsia after the hundred flowers campaign but had not finished destroying them. When he saw the Soviet Unions new aristocracy with their dachas and limousines, he set out to destroy the establishment he had created. Always one to manipulate the masses, he turned towards the youth for a new society by creating the Red Guard, an army of children. They were sanctioned by the highest authority, Mao himself and were bent on destruction. In essence, the children destroyed anything which did not appeal to them, although the initial target was to destroy the four olds: ideas, culture, customs and habits. They travelled in bands for mutual protection and inspiration, destroyed stores and restaurants and attacked however they desired. The Red Guards were divided by family background: poor peasants against well-to-do peasants, peasants against workers, and the children of army officers. The next step of the Cultural Revolution came in January 1967 when Mao replaced the officials all over China by young people with no experience and no common sense. Then universities, middle schools and primary schools closed down. This was called the period of the terror. The only young people to receive an education were the children of intellectuals who were taught by relatives and parents. Mao tried to destroy the education process which was disastrous for China as specialist, technicians ect†¦ were indispensable for the development of a country, and in this case, they were dismantled. However, he changed his mind in 1978 and sent in the Peoples Liberation Army to desman the Red Guard. Maos theory of constant revolution to avoid the forming of classes is the major separation with Leninism and Marxism. It was under these conditions that the most earthshaking political event and the largest mass mobilization the Earth has ever seen took place. This is how Chairman Mao defined its objectives: The current Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution is absolutely necessary and most timely for consolidating the dictatorship of the proletariat, preventing capitalist restoration and building socialism. Maos Communism focuses especially on the particular interest for China and this by rejecting foreign intervention. The only use for foreign involvement is to insure Chinese security, economy†¦ He believes in Chinese Communism first, and not in World Communism. However, China supports people threatened by oppression which explains their expansion policy. Indeed, China has expanded her territory by invading the Tibet, fighting Korea. China has refused economic aid, except for trade with the Soviet Union which represented only 2 percent of Chinese investments. China developed its own brand of Communism to suit its needs and similarly to Stalinism, was dictated by only one man, who had the power to decide anything he desired.

Accessibility and usability: Web technologies

Accessibility and usability: Web technologies Abstract: The relationship between accessibility and usability can be a contentious issue especially with the advent of new web technologies. Does accessibility have an adverse effect on usability and vice versa and is this in anyway affected by new web technologies? With the advent of new web technologies it is thought by some that the two supposedly bipolar methodologies of web design and evaluation contradict one another even more. In order to determine if this is in fact true this paper will look at the effect of new web technologies on accessibility and usability and the current practices in each of these areas. This paper considers various views on this topic, compares definitions and methodologies and concludes that even when using new web technologies, embracing both sets of practices and recognizing their points of similarity, it is still possible, with considered and judicious use of new web technologies to make a web design that is both usable and accessible. 1. Introduction Some accessibility practitioners believe that by applying new web technologies to a web design, that because of the added level of complexity, they create another barrier to disabled people (Everett 2006). Some usability practitioners believe that by enforcing accessibility practices that the interactivity will in some way suffer (Koch 2002). In terms of new web technologies is this still the case. Is there any merit in these beliefs? Can common ground be found to achieve the some kind of balance? There appears to be a lack of clarity of what constitutes a usable web site and misunderstanding of what constitutes a truly accessible website. The aim of this paper is to discuss the relationship between usability and accessibility by firstly looking at the differences between them and where they overlap. We will then need to understand current thinking on the relationship between accessibility and usability and how it is affected by current web technologies. Will Web Standards and new web technologies have an effect on accessibility and usability? With the advent of Web standards (Featherstone et al. The Web Standards Project 1998) and updated web accessibility guidelines (Henry et al. W3C 2008) it has become easier for developers to create sites that are more usable and accessible. This paper will also investigate technologies such as AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML)(Garrett 2005), and whether this will have any further effect on the relationship between accessibility and usability 2. Definitions and methodologies 2.1 New web technologies (Web 2.0) The concept of Web2.0 began with a conference brainstorming session. Members noted that far from being unviable after 2001, when many online businesses collapsed, the web was more important than ever, with exciting new applications and sites appearing regularly (OReilly 2002). Web 2.0 websites are characterized by their rich and interactive content. This is in stark contrast to the static HTML. By using scripting technologies such as JavaScript an AJAX (Garrett 2005) it is now possible to create web-based applications that resemble desktop applications with the advantage of being able to access them from almost anywhere. Through the use of scripting libraries it is now possible to add interactive desktop-like interface items to web pages and provide the ability to allow users to make changes to current content. Core characteristics of Web 2.0 web sites are (OReilly 2002): Web Services, not packaged software (Web applications) User control over data sources that become more comprehensive the more people use them (Wikis) Users trusted as co-developers (Wikis, blogs) Harnessing collective intelligence Software available to almost any device (Mobile Apps) Lightweight user interfaces and development models With all of these new technologies and coding techniques, what effect do they have on the relationship between accessibility and usability? Web 2.0 has the potential to enhance usability due to the added ability to create a more rich and interactive environment for the website user. However with all of these new technologies, can they be interpreted by assistive technologies used by disabled users? Have disabled users been considered? Will methodologies such as design and evaluation need to change? 2.2 Accessibility The web gives people with disabilities the ability to do things that they would be unable to do via any other avenue. The web offers them freedom and independence. However, all of these possibilities are removed if a web site is not created in an accessible way. Essentially accessibility can be defined as access for everyone no matter what disability they suffer from (Berners-Lee, via Henry W3C 2009). Other have a more flexible approach such as Clark (2002) where he suggests that allowances of for disabled users should be made to make a website accessible. Another term used in connection with Accessibility is Universal Design, which incorporates elements of usability with the goal of making websites or any product as usable as possible by as many people as possible without requiring adapted or specialized design. (Mace 2008) The guidelines by which most accessibility practitioners develop and evaluate websites is Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 which are updated standards developed by The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). These are written to accommodate new technologies and provide better and more comprehensive help for developers and designers when trying to make websites accessible. These standards consist of 12 guidelines that are organized under 4 principles: perceivable, operable, understandable, and robust. For each guideline, there are testable success criteria, which are at three levels of priority: A, AA, and AAA with all A guidelines having the highest priority (Caldwell et al. W3C 2008). The four principles of the WCAG 2.0 guidelines can be explained as follows (Caldwell et al. W3C 2008): Perceivable Web content should be made available to any or all of the senses sight, hearing, and/or touch Operable Interface objects such as forms, controls, and navigation must be operable independent of the input method Understandable The sites content, information and interface must be understandable to the target audience Robust Sites can be used reliably by a wide variety of user agents such as web browsers, mobile devices and assistive technologies The W3C also lists various methods for evaluating websites for accessibility to determine their compliance with WCAG (Abou-Zahra et al. W3C WAI 2008). Various methods including preliminary reviews, manual and automated evaluation tools, are used to determine compliance. When developing websites whether with new technologies or not it is recommended that Web Standards coding practices should be used to attain conformance with WCAG 2.0. Web standards are technologies and practices established by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), along with other groups and standards bodies for creating and interpreting web-based content. By making use of these technologies it is possible to create web content that benefit a greater number of users and at the same time making this content usable in the long-term regardless of technology changes (Featherstone et al. WASP 2006). The Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has developed an Accessible Rich Internet Applications Suite (ARIA) in order to make rich internet content more accessible for people with disabilities (Henry et al. W3C 2009). This suite is currently not fully supported in all user agents (browsers) and AJAX libraries (Henry et al. W3C 2009). Will updated accessibility practices be able to enhance or be incorporated into usability practices? 2.3 Usability The generally accepted definition for usability in ISO 9241 states: the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use Usability is defined by five quality components (Nielsen 2003): Learnability: Ease with which a basic task can be completed at the first attempt. Efficiency: The speed with which a task is performed Memorability: The ease with which an interface will be remembered. Errors: The number and severity of errors Satisfaction: The level of enjoyment or pleasure when using an interface An extension of usability is the term User-Centered Design (UCD) (Preece et al. 2006), where users are involved throughout the lifecycle of website developments by using structured methodologies in order to determine and meet all the needs of the target user (Usability.gov 2009). Some of the techniques used include (Usability.gov 2009): Usability testing Representative users are observed while attempting to complete set tasks. Notes on the observations of user behavior and comments are made. Card sorting Participants arrange and even label cards representing site content into logical groups and categories to inform the information architecture of a site design. Individual interviews Individual participants are interviewed typically for 30 minutes to an hour either in person, by telephone, or by any means available which allows conversation. These interviews can be formal or informal and do not involve observation. Contextual interview or field studies Contextual interviews are similar to user testing because the users are observed, however they are not given a set of task but are rather observed in there natural environment. Observers also take notes. Surveys These are used to obtain data from large groups of people in a relatively short time and are normally used to gather user requirements. They can also be used for summative usability evaluation. Focus groups These are usually a discussion among eight to twelve current users or potential users or stakeholders of your site conducted by an experienced moderator. Focus groups typically lasts approximately two hours and covers a range of topics that are decided on beforehand. Task analysis Is used to determine the typical tasks that users perform to achieve a particular goal. Work patterns are studied and broken down to provide a list of tasks and the order in which they are performed. Prototypes Are representations of your website/application shown to users in order to inform the design and determine any major defects before proceeding with further development. These can range from paper drawings (low-fidelity) to near complete products (high-fidelity). Expert evaluations Experts are asked to evaluate sites for usability employing various methods such as heuristic evaluation where sites are evaluated against a set of usability principles. Other methods such as Cognitive walkthroughs and pluralistic evaluation are used (Preece et al. 2006). Will usability practices need to include accessibility practices in order to include people with disabilities or will doing this minimize usability of web products? 3. Relationship 3.1 Would disabled users also benefit if usability practitioners considered accessibility guidelines as part of the efficiency and satisfaction of a site? By analyzing the definitions for accessibility and usability to understand their relationship to one another we can see that accessibility focuses on the making allowances to improve the experience for a particular group of users whereas usability focuses on the effectiveness, satisfaction and efficiency in achieving a specified goal of a particular user when using a website. We can see here that the goals are similar albeit with a slight difference in focus. Disabled users can be considered a group of users with varying needs however; in many cases they are not considered when websites are being built (Disability Rights Commission 2004). If a site is not accessible to a user it will obviously not be an enjoyable or effective experience (Clark 2002). With usability the target audience is determined by means of usability techniques such as questionnaires, surveys and focus groups (Preece et al. 2006). However in many cases accessibility practitioners do not attempt to determine the level of use by a particular disability group for a specified website (Chandrashekar et al. 2006). Some work has been done in this area, however the uptake has not been as expected (Sloan 2006). In addition when websites are developed the focus of the accessibility effort is placed on the needs of blind users without bearing in mind the needs of other user groups such as those with colour-blindness or low vision. This is mainly due to a lack of awareness of what disability groups exist, besides blind users, and the varying difficulties encountered by these people. The WCAG 2.0 guidelines attempt to cover these areas but without being able to see these users encounter problems there is little impact and therefore less motivation to cater for these users. From this we can deduce that disabled users should be included as a potential target group and this should be determined by incorporating usability techniques into web accessibility practices. 3.2 Should both sets of guidelines and principles be adopted by both sets of practitioners or should a single Universal set of guidelines be used? If we compare the most commonly used guidelines of both parties we can see that there are similarities. Usability practitioners commonly make use of Nielsens usability heuristics to perform expert evaluations (Nielsen 1994): Visibility of system status Information should be given to the user via appropriate and reasonably timed feedback Match between system and the real world Language and terms that are familiar to the target audience should be used. Information should be presented naturally and logically. User control and freedom If a user makes a mistake they must be able to exit the function easily or undo the action without being confronted by confusing and unnecessary screens or dialogs. Consistency and standards The system should be consistent in terms of words to indicate actions, navigation and the system should use conventions that the user is accustomed to. Error prevention Always attempt to prevent the error in the design instead of providing good error messages Recognition rather than recall System elements, actions and objects should always be visible or easy to retrieve in order to alleviate the need for recall of previous actions or instructions. Flexibility and efficiency of use The system should be flexible enough to accommodate experienced and inexperienced users. The system should be configurable to allow access to frequently used actions. Aesthetic and minimalist design Only important and relevant information should be displayed in dialogues. Irrelevant or unnecessary information will detract or diminish the visibility of important information. Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors Messages and suggested solutions to problems should be written in language that is plain, precise and constructive. Help and documentation If necessary, documentation should be focused, concise, concrete and easy to locate Now let us expand on the four principles of the WCAG 2.0 accessibility guidelines mentioned in section 2.1(WCAG 2008) and point out any similarities between these and Nielsens heuristics. Perceivable Web content should be made available to any or all of the senses sight, hearing, and/or touch. Usability guidelines for Visibility of System Status, Recognition rather than recall (Nielsen 1994) will fail for the disabled user if the items in the site are not perceivable. Operable Interface objects such as forms, controls, and navigation must be operable independent of the input method User control and freedom and Flexibility and efficiency of use (Nielsen 1994) guidelines are not satisfied if they are not operable. If a site is very complex or unattractive it can be difficult to operate therefore it should make use of Aesthetic and minimalist design (Nielsen 1994). A site cannot be operated if it does not apply Consistency and standards (Nielsen 1994). Understandable The sites content, information and interface must be understandable to the target audience User control and freedom, Consistency and standards, Error prevention (Nielsen 1994) cannot occur if the content is not understandable. Help and documentation (Nielsen 1994) is necessary to improve understanding. It also not possible to Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors (Nielsen 1994) if the site cannot be understood. Robust Sites can be used reliably by a wide variety of user agents such as web browsers, mobile devices and assistive technologies. In many cases minimalist design (Nielsen 1994) of a website will allow for web standards-based coding techniques to be employed which will allow it to be used on a variety of devices. Also be easier to follow platform conventions in terms of Consistency and standards (Nielsen 1994). As we can see there is an overlap between the two sets of principles. This overlap in principles could be the reason that Thatcher et al. (2003) where he suggests that accessibility issues are a type of usability problem hence accessibility is a subset of usability. Conversely Universal usability as conceptualized by Shneiderman (2003) where usability problems are thought of as a subset of accessibility problems, which expands the scope of usability to include disabled users in usability evaluations. However it is suggested the relationship between accessibility and usability isnt simply a case of applying a universal approach but that issues also be grouped into categories (Petrie et al. 2007). These being: Problems that only disabled users experience are referred to as pure accessibility problems Problems that only able-bodied users experience are referred to as pure usability problems Problems that both groups of users experience are referred to as universal usability problems The use of a universal set of guidelines is a good starting point however they will need to be refined to include the various accessibility and usability problems encountered by disabled and able-bodied users. 3.3 Should accessibility professionals employ usability practices? Usability practitioners employ numerous methods to determine the effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction of a project whereas accessibility practitioners will use various techniques and methods to achieve compliance with a set of guidelines. User testing is used by both sets of practitioners, more so by usability practitioners (Chandrashekar et al. 2006). However the difference being that usability practitioners will use this method early on and throughout the design process (Preece et al. 2006 p412). Accessibility practitioners will employ this method at the end of the project. Both groups make use of design guidelines (section 3.2). However guidelines are possibly not the most effective way of evaluating accessibility or usability as they are to be used as guidance but cannot by their nature guarantee the desired results. There are similarities between the accessibility and usability principles with accessibility guidelines being more technical in nature (Kelly et al. 2007), as they require websites to present a particular level of coding. However there are a number of non-technical accessibility guidelines. It is often thought that by making use of accessibility guidelines or universal design techniques that a site will be accessible by all. However this is not necessarily the case (Petrie 2007). Usability guidelines can also present problems (Spool 2002). As with the use of any guidelines they can conflict with one another, they can be misinterpreted and misapplied and they do not guarantee results. In practice accessibility experts will evaluate web sites against guidelines as opposed to user testing. However this has also been found to not be the most effective way of making a website accessible as shown by Disability Rights Commission (DRC) investigation, into website accessibility for disabled people. The study found that designers could not be expected to understand and repair the problems that disabled users experience when visiting a website. To overcome this problem the report suggests that disabled users should be directly involved in the development process (Disability Rights Commission 2004). Guidelines are important from a technical standpoint however it is also important to recognize that the guidelines cannot accommodate all users all of the time. The areas where the guidelines are not practical or important need to be clearly identified and alternate methods need to be identified in order to achieve accessibility (Kelly et al. 2007). Since the publication of the WCAG 2.0 in 2008, however, there are a variety of success criteria and methods suggested that could be used to achieve accessibility (Henry 2008). This being the case guidelines for measuring accessibility is still used predominantly because of the difference in cost between an expert evaluation and user testing and the availability of participants. It is often difficult to get a broad spectrum of users with varying disabilities and therefore accessibility practitioners inevitably end up repeatedly utilizing the same participants for disabled user testing. The reason cost is an issue is due to the fact that accessibility is not built into the project from the beginning and that many do not view it as being of great importance as the number of disabled users is thought to be proportionately very low in comparison with non-disabled users. However there is a strong business case for including disabled users. Christopherson (2007) states: The combined spending power of the 10 million people with a disability in the UK amounts to  £80 billion. There are 6 million people in the UK with dyslexia, with severe cases numbering around 4 million. Many users do not class themselves as disabled even though they may often suffer from disabilities that arent physically manifested such as age related issues, colour-blindness or cognitive difficulties. Some websites do not cater for older devices. By not including disabled users fully may exclude many users from a website which could mean a significant loss in revenue. In many cases accessibility testing is normally regarded as something that can be quickly done at the end of a project in order to comply with the legal obligations of a project. This approach to web accessibility is very shortsighted and potentially costly. If accessibility problems are encountered at the end of a project they can be very difficult to rectify after the fact. As is now recognized in the usability field, it is more efficient and cost effective to include usability evaluation from the beginning and throughout a project. This should also the case for accessibility evaluation as promoted by Henry (2007) in his book Just Ask: Integrating Accessibility Throughout Design. The main chapters deal with: The importance of building accessibility at the beginning and throughout the project Including disabled users and not relying only on standards and guidelines Tips on how to deal with disabled users It is better to involve disabled users throughout the lifespan of a project rather than relying on guidelines alone. By involving disabled users practitioners may be able to determine accessibility issues and usability issues which may have been otherwise missed in usability testing (Petrie 2007 pp 405). Accessibility professionals should not adopt usability principles if they are only going to rely on guidelines. However the usability practice of including actual users in evaluation and design from the start and throughout a project should be adopted. 3.4 What effect do new technologies have on usability? As stated earlier (section 2.1) new web technologies can enhance usability. Is this statement true? Does the ability to add more interactivity to a website improve the usability? According to Nielsen (2007) Web 2.0 technologies add more complexity to a website where it is sometimes not necessary and divert design resources. In his report he found amongst other things that: Internet applications were too complex Community content has too few users on the Internet Features merged from different websites (Mashups) can cause branding confusion Application type websites will benefit most from the use Web 2.0 technologies. Most other websites have very few repeated actions thus not requiring the use of this technology. Therefore as Nielsen (2007) states that efficiency is not as important as simplicity and that modest use of Web 2.0 technologies can be of benefit, however the benefits of advanced features have little effect in improving the users experience. If used modestly new technologies can be beneficial for certain types of user experience such as web applications. 3.5 What effect does new technologies have on accessibility? In a study by Hailpern et al. (2009) it was found that Web 2.0 applications force blind users to adapt to an inaccessible use model, although the evolution of technologies such as WAI-ARIA (section 2.3) and AJAX (section 2.3) may change this in the future. Some believe that Web 2.0 will make it more difficult to create accessible websites. Christopherson via Everett (2006) states that if accessibility is not kept in mind there is a greater chance that Web 2.0 will cause problems for disabled users. Basically Web 2.0 adds a further level of complexity, both in terms of accessibility and usability and this will need to be considered throughout the design process if these technologies are going to be used. 4. Conclusion To make sites that are usable and accessible we will need to change our thinking of usability. Is your site still usable if sighted people can fully and conveniently use it but it is a frustrating exercise for a blind person? (Clark 2003) In understanding the concept of an accessible site we have to understand what an accessible site is. A disabled persons experience of a website does not have to be identical to that of an able-bodied person. If accessibility features are simple and well written they should be unnoticed (Clark 2002). Clark (2002) reiterates, Equality is a misnomer. Equivalency is the goal. As can be seen from the above discussion there is an overlap between the definitions and methodologies employed by accessibility and usability practitioners and that there is scope for accessibility guidelines to be employed by usability practitioners and vice versa. However this is not simply a case of making a universal set of guidelines, as firstly accessibility and usability issues cannot be universally grouped and that there are distinct groups of accessibility issues. Secondly the use solely of guidelines is fraught with controversy and do not necessarily guarantee that a site will be accessible or usable. Involving users both disabled and able-bodied throughout the project lifecycle is the most effective approach in achieving the most usable and accessible product. Involving disabled users is also makes good business sense. Web 2.0 technologies do have an effect on the relationship between accessibility and usability. For them to not have a negative effect they need to be used with discretion always bearing in mind that they add a level of complexity for both able-bodied and disabled users. Therefore we can conclude that that by embracing the techniques and methodologies and recognizing points of similarity between usability and accessibility practices, and with modest and careful, considered use of new web technologies a web design can be made both usable and accessible. References Abou-Zahra, S (ed) (2008) Evaluating Web Sites for Accessibility: Overview. Worldwide Web Consortium, Web Accessibility Initiative. Available at: http://www.w3.org/WAI/eval/Overview.html. Accessed 7 December 2009. Caldwell, B, Cooper, M, Reid, LG Vanderheiden, G (2008) Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0. Available at: http://www.w3.org/TR/2008/REC-WCAG20-20081211/. Accessed 7 December 2009. Christopherson, R (2007) Making the business case for accessibility. AbilityNet. Available at: http://www.abilitynet.org.uk/webbusinesscase. Accessed 7 December 2009. Chandrashekar, S, Fels, D, Stockman, T, Benedyk, R. (2006) Using think aloud protocol with blind users: A case for inclusive usability evaluation methods. Proceedings of the 8th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on computers and accessibility, Portland, Oregon Clark, J (2002) Building Accessible Websites. New Riders. Available at: http://joeclark.org/book/. Accessed 7 December 2009. Disability Rights Commission (2004) The web: access and inclusion for disabled people. Available at: http://joeclark.org/dossiers/DRC-GB.html. Accessed 7 December 2009. Everett, C (2006) Web 2.0: A step backwards for accessibility? ZDNet.co.uk. Available at: http://resources.zdnet.co.uk/articles/0,1000001991,39284428,00.htm. Accessed 7 December 2009. Featherstone, D. Gustavson, A. Sims, G (1998) Working together for standards The Web Standards Project. Available at: http://www.webstandards.org. Accessed 7 December 2009. Garrett, JJ (2005) Ajax: A New Approach to Web Applications. Adaptive Path. http://www.adaptivepath.com/ideas/essays/archives/000385.php. Accessed 7 December 2009. Hailpern, J, Guarino-Reid, L, Boardman, R, Annam, S (2009) Web 2.0: blind to an accessible new world. Proceedings of the 18th international Conference on World Wide Web (Madrid, Spain, April 20 24, 2009). WWW 09. ACM, New York, NY. Henry, SL (2009) W3C: Accessibility. Worldwide Web Consortium. Available at: http://www.w3.org/standards/webdesign/accessibility. Accessed 7 December 2009. Henry, SL (2007) Just Ask: Integrating Accessibility Throughout Design. Madison, WI. Available at: http://www.uiAccess.com/JustAsk/. Accessed 7 December 2009.

Teacher Education Students at the State University of New York Cortland :: Essays Papers

Teacher Education Students at the State University of New York Cortland A multicultural education incorporates not only culture, but race, social class, gender and disability. "Through guided classroom interaction students’ interracial attitudes may become more positive and accepting" (Chesler, 1971, p.613). Multicultural education has many goals (Kendall, 1996, p. 10). By providing this type of classroom experience children will learn to respect other cultures and to work with others of difference. By using resources that are in the community (parents, library, field trips..) teachers can incorporate this type of education into all subject areas. For example, a science teacher could combine multiculturalism by teaching about achievements made by people of different cultures and also of achievements by women. A multicultural education helps children develop a positive self-concept. By providing a multicultural curriculum students will learn to value other cultures as well as their own. A multicultural education means acceptance and the willingness to learn about others, which will help to make students’ successful members of society. Positive early experiences of multiculturalism in the classroom should be integrated in all aspects of a childs schooling, especially in science. Science is where hands on learning should occur. Teachers must take the time to understand that all children bring their prior experiences with them into the classroom. Children may have misconceptions about science based on their experiences or lack of experiences outside the class. For example, children who live in the city may have less knowledge about farm animals and their environment other than the concrete. Teachers must realize that children in different cultures may have different learning styles. "Culture and ethnicity have deep impact on our learning styles" (Kendall, 1996, p. 33). For example some Navajo children learn better through demonstration. A teacher must be careful not to stereotype children. Just because they are from a cer tain culture does not mean that they must be taught a certain way. Teachers must be aware that a child from a certain culture may learn in a certain way and it is up to the teacher to observe the child to find out what teaching approach is best. Exposing children at an early age to a learning environment with a rich variety of cultural and ethnic materials is essential for them to respect and appreciate others of a different race, gender, or cultural background. By incorporating multiculturalism into science, this gives children an opportunity to learn about people who may be unique from them.

Fenstads Mother :: essays papers

Fenstads Mother In Fenstad’s Mother, by Charles Baxter, character is a very essential element to the story. The main character, Harry Fenstad, is a complicated person, but it is his mother, Mrs. Clara Fenstad, who I feel is a more important and complex person. In this brief paper, I will explain why it is my opinion that both of these characters play a crucial role in the story by complementing and developing each other’s character. Fenstad career is a brochure writer, but he also teaches an extension English-composition class at the downtown campus of the state university. He attends church regularly, and his passion is ice skating. I know that these may seem like simple ways to describe a character I have referred to as complicated, but there is so much more that lies beneath these plain descriptions. Fenstad says that he likes to teach because â€Å"he liked teaching strangers and because he enjoyed the sense of hope that classrooms held for him† (page 117). Harry seems to be a very distant person in that he likes to be around people who do not really know him. He would much rather be an observer than a very active participant. When he goes ice skating in the beginning of the story, there are a lot of people who are skating, but he can blend right in. He hs a few friends, but they are very similar to Fenstad. They like the same things and have the same attitudes about life. Fenstad does not want to seem to deviate from his own normal way of life. Fenstad’s mother, Clara, is a character quite opposite from her son. She is older and does not get out of her house much. She used to be very active in politics and loves to be around people. She has a kindness and generosity that instantly attracts other people. When she begins to visit Fenstad’s logic class, the students seem to be more interested in what she has to say than in what Fenstad is trying to teach. Mrs. Fenstad is aware and understands her own magnetism and tries not to take too much attention away from her son. The two characters help each other develop throughout the story. Fenstad is a person who is very reluctant to change, whereas his mother is an individual whose mind is always open to new possibilities. It did not surprise me that Mrs.

Small man who led a big nation Essay examples -- essays research paper

The Small Man Who Led a Big Nation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mahatma Gandhi was a national icon for the people of India between the years 1869 and 1948. He is still remembered all over the world today. To follow the path of Gandhi one must traverse all regions of India, from the houses of the highest officials to the poorest villages where the word poverty does injustice. Gandhi led a fearless resistance against the British government, that oppressed his people, and an endless pilgrimage to lift the spirits of his people(the people of India) to maturity. Gandhi was very unique in his approach as he preached non-violence and led a life similar to that of the most downtrodden people of India.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gandhi was born into a family of high standing. His family had been advisors of some of the rulers of India.(Spodek 663) Gandhi’s mother, Putlibai, was a traditional Indian woman; she was of high morals and deeply religious. In Gandhi’s later years his mothers impact is apparent as he fasts many times and becomes a vegetarian. She also had a moral influence on her son. One of Gandhi’s early teachers encouraged him to cheat on a spelling test in order to impress a school inspector, but he refused. Despite all his good traits Gandhi was a below average student and did not show much promise in academics.(Wolf 171) Nevertheless he traveled to England to attend law school in 1888 in accordance with the desires of his family. He studied for three years in London where he â€Å"began to come alive, intellectually and spiritually†(Wolf 171).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Upon his return to India, Gandhi was hired by an Indian firm to take a case in South Africa. While there Gandhi witnessed several cases of injustice against himself and the Indian population in South Africa. Gandhi himself was thrown out of a first-class train car because he was not white. The demeaning approach the government of Africa took against the Indian population ignited Gandhi’s fire to fight human injustice. This began Gandhi’s communal living and his methods of resistance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gandhi established a new form of nonviolent resistance against government he called satyagraha or â€Å"truth force†. Satyagraha â€Å"manifested in self-sacrificing, non-violent mass demonstrations, demanding that the persecutors recognize the immorality of their own position and ... ...nd traveled with the poor he helped them feel connected with the other leaders of the movement. One of Gandhi’s greatest marches towards independence was the Salt March. The British had a monopoly on salt production and sale. Gandhi marched 241 miles to the beach and gathered his own salt and this led to hundreds of peasants doing the same. That is just another example of Gandhi going to jail for his cause.(Wolf 173)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During his time, Gandhi shined as a spiritual reformer and political activist to try and change the hearts of his opponents. His characteristic non-violent movements have been copied by many great men that have come after him. He held himself no higher than the poorest man of his country and that is why his country loved him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Sherman, Dennis. World Civilizations . Massachusetts:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mcgraw-Hill; 1998. Spodek, Howard. The World’s History. New Jersey: Prentice   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hall; 1998. Wolf, Ken. Personalities and Problems. Massachusetts:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  McGraw-Hill; 1999.

Management 497 Assignment Week 2

Audit Exercise Paper Two Student Name MGT/497 – Strategic Technology Planning for Organizations Professor Name January 16, 2012 Introduction This paper will refer to two audit exercises from Chapter three and Chapter four of the textbook. The first one will refer to demand for product, competitive response, level of novelty of the innovation, factor that could block the good outcome of an innovation, and other factors. The second audit exercise will involve the assimilation of a checklist for innovation with respect to the considered organization. It will also determine the readiness of the organization to implement an innovation strategy. The company chosen for these audit exercises is Apple. Everyone has heard about this company and knows that the products of it are very important in our lives. According to Apple Inc. (2012), they mission statement says that they design Macs, the best personal computers in the world and they lead the digital music revolution with their iPods and iTunes online stores. The mission statement also says that the company has reinvented the mobile phone with their revolutionary iPhone and that they define the future of mobile media and computing devices with the iPad. The goal of this company is to make the best mobile product from their phone. Remember what Steve Jobs said when people asked him about the purpose of this company. He said that the company will try and offer with their mobile phone what the people need and not what they want. Audit Exercise Chapter 3 This audit exercise will address demand for the product or products of Apple, factors possible to block the success of an innovation, their standards, competitive response, the level of novelty of the innovation, as well as other factors. White and Bruton (2011) give the following factors to determine the value of an option: favorability of demand for products, factors to speed adoption, factors to block the success of an innovation, the chances of strong competitive response, the likelihood that the possible competitive advantages are sustained, factors inside the company that allow setting standards, the costs to commercialize, the resources available to commercialize, the level of novelty that is captured by the innovation, development costs, certain opportunities that could be advantageous, and possible areas where damage might occur. In dealing with all these factors, we will refer to the iPhone, the innovation that took Apple on its highest peaks of success. First we refer to the demand for this product. Ever since it was released to the public this product has been nothing but a success. The early prototype that went on sale in June, 2007 blew up the market. According to Vogelstein (2008), analyst were speculating that customers would snap up about three million units by the end of 2007, making from this phone, the fastest-selling smartphone in the history. It was the same story with the following generations of the smartphone and the demand was higher even though they had their first powerful competitor by the end of 2008 when Android came to life with they G1 smartphone. In order to speed up the adoption of this product the company needs to make sure that they keep their quality standards as they are now. Innovation could be blocked if Apple makes structural changes inside the company or if the key employees in this position want to leave the company. Apple has received a big hit when the heart of this company left us. Steve Jobs was the brain behind all the innovation at Apple and people will remember him a lot of years from now. Their direct competition is the Android operating systems with all the smartphone adopting it. Android is a powerful competitor which has gain a lot from the market of the smartphone and as it currently is, Google’s Android has a higher portion of the market in this area compared to Apple. To sustain a competitive advantage, Apple needs to keep innovate and offer quality to their dedicated customers. When it comes to costs of commercialization, the company does well enough because the prices of producing the product are small compared to the prices at which the product is sold in the market. It seems that Google with their Android OS is a little in front of Apple with respect to technological advancement; this is why Apple need to direct some of their costs to research and development to keep up or become better than their competitor. They could leverage opportunities by being able to maintain their devoted customers and offer to them discounts or special promotions for the products. This would attract other potential customers. The potential damage may occur if Apple is not able to stay in the competition or cannot innovate; they are threatened if Google’s Android is advancing faster and faster because people like to stay in touch with the technology and would choose the best product in the market. Audit Exercise Chapter 4 This audit exercise from the end of chapter four requires analyzing a figure which contains a checklist for innovative organizations to consider. The questions at hand refer to ways of using the checklist in determining a company’s readiness to implement a strategy that would be innovative. It requires identifying at least a major area to be examined and addressing important considerations from this area. Figure 4. 7 is divided into four categories. It talks about vision, leadership, processes, and resources. We would refer to all of them in consideration to the company Apple. This time the chosen product will be the iPad. The same way Apple was ingenious by bringing the iPhone to the world, the same way was the story about the Ipad. It was the same brain behind this product as well. The iPad was the first tablet pc in the world. People have seen the concept only in science fiction movies and they were very thrilled when the product came out to the market. It had the same success, the same higher demand as the iPhone did. Now, referring to the vision category and to the first question which asks whether or not the team (or the company here) has a clearly articulated vision, mission, or set of objectives, it has to be noted that Apple has it all clear up, even though things have declined a bit when Steve Jobs died. However, all the employees in the company need to share the same vision so that they could put all their efforts in continuously creating the same quality products as they did so far. However, not everyone participated in creating the vision because this would be a tough thing to do. The vision came from Steve Jobs and it was shared progressively with all the important players from this company. The vision was to offer the people what they need most and not what they want. This is attainable; however, it is attainable with a higher price because the company needs to invest time and resources in research and development to spot the necessities of the client and to try to satisfy them. When it comes to leadership, Steve Jobs is the name that perfectly connects to this term. According to Miami University (2007) leadership is the reciprocal process of mobilizing by individuals with specific values and motives, various politic, economic, and other resources in an environment of conflict and competition, to be able to realize goals independently or mutually held by both the followers and the leaders. It may be a complex definition, but it has the power to point out all the important aspects of this discipline. The textbook asks: â€Å"Is excellence of central importance to the team? † The answer in the context of Apple is â€Å"yes† because they are reaching their purposes through excellence, hard work, and a lot of skill. All the employees in this company are committed to fulfill the same vision and the present leader Tim Cook has the purpose of taking forward the words of Steve Jobs and encourage open idea exchanges. The next category from the checklist for innovation strategy is about processes. At Apple probably not all the employees participate in decision making because this would not be appropriate. Imagine how would be to give a worker in assembly the power to make decisions about marketing strategies for the company. It would surely not be appropriate. However, all the employees are welcome to share their ideas and make recommendations to improve processes or products. They are even rewarded if their propositions are efficient. There is a climate of trust inside this company and it is mportant to maintain it because without good relationships, without communication, there will be conflicts, which lead to inefficiency and to lower productivity. When it comes to resources, Apple has a good way of managing them. Not only they try to make their quality products with a lower consumption of resources and money, but they have the possibility to charge more for their products in comparison with ot her companies in the same sectors. They are successful; however, this may not be the best strategy on the long-term. They should considering lowering a bit the prices; this would most likely increases their sales. Conclusion Apple is a market leader and it represents a business model to other companies. Its position offers the company the ability to innovate, invest extensively in research and try to be better than it self. The company has been around for a while now, so they know how to do business efficiently. However, recent competition has absorbed some of its market. This should not be seen as a bad thing in the company but as a motive, as a spark to make the company constantly innovate and make the world a better place with their products. References Apple Inc. (2012). Apple Corporate Information. Retrieved from http://investor. apple. com/faq. cfm? FaqSetID=6 Miami University (2007). What is Leadership? Retrieved from http://www. units. muohio. edu/saf/leadership/students/whatisleadership. html Vogelstein, F. (2008). The Untold Story: How the iPhone Blew Up the Wireless Industry. Retrieved from http://www. wired. com/gadgets/wireless/magazine/16-02/ff_iphone? currentPage=all White, M. A, & Bruton, G. D. (2011). The Management of Technology & Innovation: A Strategic Approach (2nd Ed. ). Mason, OH: South-Western/Cengage Learning.